1 Introduction

In many developing countries, animal protein is outrageously expensive, yet lentils have become an important "role" in feeding people. This kind of bean is not only affordable but also nutritious-especially with a high protein content, it is often used as the main source of protein. Moreover, it can also help the soil "recharge" because it can fix nitrogen, which is simply a blessing in crop rotation in farmland. Lentils are widely grown in places like Asia, North America, Australia and Europe. Despite its unremarkable appearance, it can make a significant contribution to food security-especially in areas with insufficient meat supply, its role should not be underestimated (Ahmed et al., 2021).

But things weren't that ideal either. Although lentils are easy to grow, they can cause big trouble when they encounter weeds and pests. In the early stage of growth, it develops slowly and has a relatively loose plant shape. It cannot compete with weeds for resources, especially nutrients, water and light. If weeds are not controlled, the yield loss is not just a little high-sometimes it can even drop by 60% to 70% (Alba et al., 2020). Moreover, weeds are prone to attracting insects and diseases, which is like adding insult to injury. Old problems like root rot and fusarium wilt always revolve around lentils. In some places, once the diseases break out, the yield can be cut in half (Tripathi, 2016). There aren't many chemical agents available for weeding lentils. When it comes to drug resistance, it's really hard to deal with. Management can easily get bogged down if not handled with care, especially in large-scale planting systems where complexity rises sharply (Pala, 2019).

What this study aims to do is not to repeat how serious the problem is, but to examine the existing "combination of measures"-from farming methods, mechanical means to chemical and biological control-which combination is the most reliable, capable of effectively controlling weeds and pests, stabilizing yields, while also taking into account environmental protection and economic benefits. We will also sort out what blind spots still exist in the current practice and where future research can focus. After all, planting a lot does not necessarily mean good management.

2 Major Weeds and Pests in Lentil Cultivation

2.1 Common weed species affecting lentils

The newly sown lentils grow slowly, with sparse leaves and a very empty ground. Once the weeds sprout, they can easily gain the upper hand. Especially in the early stage, lentils have almost no resistance ability. Weeds like quinoa (Chenopodium album), Phalaris minor, Convolvulus arvensis, Avena sterilis, Glebionis coronaria are frequent visitors in many planting areas. Clearing them is time-consuming and affects the harvest. It has been tallied that more than twenty different kinds of weeds can sprout in the lentil field-no small number. The risk of output loss is not low either. Once not well controlled, a loss of more than 60% is not an exaggeration (Tariq et al., 2022; Rhioui et al., 2023). Of course, there are solutions. Manual weeding, mulching with plastic film, and herbicides are basically the common choices at present. However, the effectiveness and feasibility of each method still depend on local conditions and the tolerance of the lentils themselves (Sharma et al., 2018; Shivani et al., 2025).

2.2 Major insect pests in lentil fields

Lentils are not only afraid of weeds, but also have a lot of insects. Some insects are messing around in the fields, while others are causing trouble during the storage stage. Cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera), aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum, Aphis craccivora) (Figure 1), cutworms (Amathes cnigrum), leaf weevils (Sitona spp.), tarnished plant bug (Lygus spp.), seed beetles (Bruchus lentis, Bruchus ervi). They almost cover the entire process of lentils' growth and storage. The Acyrthosiphon pisum is particularly troublesome. It not only absorbs SAP and harms seedlings but also may spread viruses. Once it breaks out, the entire yield may be ruined (Das et al., 2022; Zafeiriou et al., 2022). In addition, insects like the bean pod borer will specifically target developing seeds, while cutworms prefer to gnaw on young seedlings. The seed beetles do not show up until the lentils are collected, but it also poses a considerable threat to storage safety (Saeidi and Mirfakhraie, 2017; Bidar et al., 2021; Ebadi et al., 2025).

Figure 1  Effect of aphid herbivory on the (A) FW, (B) DW, (C) H reduction (%) of the different lentil accessions 12 dpi. The accessions were assigned to different groups based on their post infestation performance, according to Tukey’s HSD (p<0.05) (Adopted from Zafeiriou et al., 2022)

2.3 Region-specific weed and pest threats in key lentil-growing countries

The trouble varies depending on where the lentils are grown. For instance, in India, weeds like quinoa and horseflies are the number one enemies. Cotton bollworms and aphids are always present, and cutworms also come to visit from time to time. What is more troublesome is that there is another parasitic weed called "Liudang", which has become a major concern in some areas (Mbasani-Mansi et al., 2019; En-Nahli et al., 2023). The situation in Canada is slightly different. The most annoying problem is the pea aphid. A specific economic threshold has been established locally to determine whether control is needed. As for the problem of weeds, the local climate and farming systems have also made the species more complex (Yang et al., 2021; Zhou et al., 2023). In Australia, the combination of insects and grass is largely similar, but they also have to deal with drug-resistant weeds and more adaptable pests, making the difficulty level even higher.

3 Effects of Weeds and Pests on Lentil Growth and Yield

3.1 Competition with weeds for water, nutrients, and light

The lentil, as a crop, grew slowly and short in its early stage, and its leaves couldn't cover the ground, which naturally put it at a disadvantage. Once the weeds sprout, water, nutrients and sunlight all have to be snatched. How could the lentils withstand it? The result was quite obvious-it did not grow tall, had few branches, and the pods shrank. Eventually, the seed yield declined (Sirisha et al., 2020; Birla et al., 2023). In fact, many studies have long pointed out that if weeds are not removed in time, the yield may drop by a quarter to 80%, especially for those plots that have never been weeded from beginning to end, the losses are the most severe. Of course, there are solutions available, such as manual weeding, spraying pesticides, or a combination of these, all of which can improve growth and output overall (Kumari et al., 2022).

3.2 Damage by pests during seedling, flowering, and podding stages

Cutworms like to bully the newly emerged tender seedlings. Each bite is accurate. With fewer seedlings, the yield naturally won't increase later. When the flowers bloom and pods form, aphids and pod bores take over. These two not only eat plants but also do not spare the developing seeds, and may even bring germs to cause trouble (Tosti et al., 2023). If pests are not controlled at this stage, there will be problems with podding. Not only will there be fewer seeds, but their quality will also be compromised. What's worse, if pests catch up with weeds that are not well managed and fertilization is inadequate, the losses will not be simply added up but rather accumulated and magnified.

3.3 Yield losses and economic implications of unmanaged biotic stress

Ultimately, if weeds and insects are not controlled, it is equivalent to giving up the door to yield. A production cut of over 60% is not an extreme case; it has been recorded in many places. The economic account behind it is also very realistic: on one hand, it is well managed, with high output and good benefits; On the other side, there is a lot of grass and insects, and money is also wasted (Bankoti and Nautiyal, 2021). Especially in those rain-fed farmlands that rely on the weather for their livelihood, resources are already tight. Once the output drops, farmers may not even be able to cover their basic annual income and expenditure, let alone ensure food security.

4 Foundations of Integrated Weed and Pest Management (IWPM)

4.1 Concept and principles of integration in pest and weed control

Some people are accustomed to relying on a certain method to deal with weeds or pests, such as spraying pesticides, but the problem is-this approach won't last long. Drug resistance is a huge pitfall. If not handled carefully, it can even affect the ecological environment. The concept proposed by IWPM is different. It advocates the combined use of planting, mechanical means, biological methods and chemical methods. Why? Because the combination of measures is more stable, it is less likely for pests, diseases and grasses to adapt, and it also exerts less pressure on the environment. Take lentils as an example. By appropriately increasing the sowing density, implementing crop rotation, applying some mulching or manual weeding, and precisely using herbicides and biopesticides, not only are the weeds and pests suppressed, but the yield is also guaranteed (Redlick et al., 2017). Ultimately, IWPM is not about which method is more powerful, but rather about "how to combine and when to use". The real skill lies in using it skillfully.

4.2 Compatibility and synergy between weed and pest management strategies

It's easier said than done. Whether comprehensive management can be effective actually depends on whether these methods can be well coordinated. For instance, some herbicides work well before the emergence of seedlings, but they are not stable enough when used alone. At this time, if they are combined with mechanical weeding or manual remediation, the growth of weeds can be better suppressed. While biofertilifiers and biopesticides may not have such immediate effects at first glance, once combined with reasonable farming methods, they can not only prevent diseases but also promote growth (Kumari et al., 2020). Many studies point to one conclusion: comprehensive usage is often better than going it alone. After all, weeds and pests are never a single threat. Only by taking a multi-pronged approach can one avoid being overwhelmed.

4.3 Environmental and economic sustainability of IWPM in lentil cultivation

Many people, upon hearing the terms "ecological sustainability" and "environmental friendliness", think that more money will be spent. However, this is not always the case. This comprehensive approach of IWPM can actually save a considerable amount of money. Reducing reliance on chemical pesticides can prevent damage to pesticides, resistance, as well as harm to beneficial insects and soil. From an economic perspective, this approach can also make production more stable and resource utilization higher, thereby increasing net income (Lhungdim et al., 2013). Some practices, such as covering or using plant extracts to control weeds and kill pests, neither harm crops nor pollute the environment, and are highly feasible. In the long run, they are both cost-effective and safer.

5 Key Integrated Weed and Pest Management (IWPM) Strategies in Lentil Systems

5.1 Cultural methods: crop rotation, stale seedbed technique, intercropping with cereals

No matter what management method is adopted, the foundation still needs to start from the planting method. For environmentally sensitive crops like lentils, seemingly ordinary details such as sowing methods and crop rotation arrangements actually have a significant impact on weeds and pests. For instance, when the seeding rate is doubled and combined with mechanical methods such as rotary tillage, harrowing, and interrow weeding, the effect of weed control will be significantly enhanced, making it particularly suitable for organic or low-input planting systems. In some places, "aged seedbeds" have also been adopted-that is, the land is prepared in advance to allow the weeds to sprout first, and then they are removed before sowing, laying an early "ambush strike". In addition, intercropping with grains is also a good approach. It not only increases the surface coverage but also enhances the efficiency of resource utilization, naturally making it less likely to leave loopholes for weeds.

5.2 Biological control: use of parasitoids, predators, and bioherbicides

When it comes to the prevention and control of pests, diseases and weeds, it is not necessary to rely on "killing". Biological control has become increasingly popular in recent years. For instance, fermented nettle liquid and plant mulch (like wheat straw) are used to control weeds. These methods not only do no harm to lentils but also can play a "substitute" role when pesticides are limited (Rhioui et al., 2024). In terms of pests and diseases, biological pesticides and fertilizers such as trichoderma and neem extract have also performed well. They not only reduce diseases but in some experiments, the incidence of diseases has even decreased by more than 90%. Although the effect is not as "rapid", it has the advantages of being environmentally friendly and stable. It can also be used in conjunction with other measures and has a strong ability to fill in the gap.

5.3 Chemical control: pre- and post-emergence herbicides and selective insecticides, with resistance management

It is indeed difficult to grow lentils in the fields without relying on some chemical methods. Pre-emergence herbicides such as dimethyl pentoxide, imidazolicotinic acid, and oxyfluoxane are often used in combination with manual or mechanical weeding and can suppress most weeds (Kaur and Bhullar, 2015; Kalita and Chakrabarty, 2019). However, nowadays, "moderation" is emphasized. Some practices attempt to reduce the dosage of herbicides, combined with mechanical weeding and close planting. The results show that the control effect is similar to that of full-dose herbicides and can also reduce the risk of drug resistance (Kumar et al., 2001). In terms of pests, such as aphids and pod borers, selective insecticides are still necessary. However, it is recommended to alternate their use and not always use one type, otherwise resistance problems will arise sooner or later. In conclusion, chemical methods are not impossible to use, but if they are relied upon alone and used too frequently, environmental problems and drug resistance will eventually come to the door. Therefore, it is best to combine them with other strategies.

6 Technological Advancements for Integrated Weed and Pest Management (IWPM) in Lentils

6.1 Remote sensing and gis tools for weed and pest population mapping

In the past, farmers relied on experience to determine where there were insects or grass in the fields, but now it's quite different. When a drone flies around and uses infrared or multispectral imaging, the distribution of weeds and the density of pests can be clearly seen at a glance. These remote sensing tools allow people not to "go down to the ground and copy the equipment", but to target key points precisely, which is much more accurate (Zhong and Zhong, 2024). Combined with a GIS system, once spatial information is integrated, it can be seen from a single map which plot of land is the most suitable to be acquired and when (Esposito et al., 2021). Of course, not every field can be equipped with these devices. Cost and operational difficulty also need to be taken into account. However, the trend is obvious-they are being used more widely and more precisely.

6.2 AI-based decision support systems for timely interventions

What should I do if there is too much information and my brain can't digest it? This is when AI comes in handy. Some systems can automatically collect remote sensing images, field sensor data, and historical records of pests and diseases, and then use algorithms to analyze when weeds will break out and when pests are more likely to occur. To put it bluntly, it's to tell you in advance: "Be careful these days" and "Take care of this area for now." These intelligent decision-making tools may not be 100% accurate, but at least they can help control the pace when planting on a large scale, so as not to react only when problems become serious.

6.3 Development of pest- and herbicide-resistant lentil cultivars through molecular breeding

Chemical agents are ultimately just external aid. The key lies in making efforts on the varieties themselves. Molecular breeding technology is now developing rapidly. Scientists have begun to look for resistance genes from wild lentils or mutant strains, and introduce these traits into commercial varieties through QTL mapping, molecular markers or direct gene editing (Figure 2) (Roy et al., 2023; Chen, 2024). It sounds easy, but it will still take some time for it to be truly launched on the market. However, this approach can indeed reduce the reliance on pesticides, especially in regions with tight resources or high sustainability pressure, which is of great significance. Although it cannot be achieved overnight, the future lentils might indeed be able to "come with their own defense".

Figure 2 A schematic depicting the future road map for disease resistance breeding in lentil (Adopted from Roy et al., 2023)

7 Case Study: Integrated Weed and Pest Management (IWPM) Adoption in Central India

7.1 Overview of lentil cultivation challenges in madhya pradesh

In India, when it comes to lentil production areas, Madhya Pradesh can be regarded as a "major hub". Here, the area is vast and there are many plants, but problems also come quickly. The most common problems that farmers encounter are overgrown weeds and repeated attacks by pests. Some people initially relied on chemical agents to boost their reputation, but the result was that they used more and more of them, but the effect was not necessarily better. Instead, it led to higher costs and greater environmental pressure. What's more troublesome is that drug resistance is gradually emerging, and some drugs are no longer very effective. The reality, however, is that most farmers are not familiar with alternative methods, are short of funds, have limited training and cannot keep up with promotion-it is by no means easy to get them to change their thinking (Rao and Nagamani, 2010; Rao and Chauhan, 2015).

7.2 Implementation of an integrated program

To see if we could find a way out, we introduced a "mix and match" solution in the local area. Instead of immediately spraying pesticides, they started with mechanical weeding and first pressed down the weeds. Then, pheromone traps are used. Instead of directly killing the insects, it is necessary to first understand where the insects are and when they are abundant, and then deal with them collectively. As for pesticides, the biological agent based on neem was chosen-compared with those chemically synthesized products, this type of medicine is milder and has a smaller environmental impact. This entire set of solutions is actually in line with the idea advocated by the country in recent years: relying less on chemical means and more on the combined efforts of cultivation, mechanical and biological methods (Baker et al., 2020; Angon et al., 2023).

7.3 Outcomes: reduction in pesticide usage, yield increase, and cost savings

The data from the field experiments are not particularly impressive, but they are quite substantial. The use of pesticides has decreased by about 40%, and both environmental and personal risks have been significantly reduced. More importantly, the lentils have grown more vigorously and their yield has increased by about 20% compared to before. For small-scale farmers, this improvement is tangible-the overall planting cost has dropped by 10% to 15%, and the net income has also increased accordingly (Ram, 2015). Of course, not all plots yield immediate results. Some areas may take longer to show results, but the direction is correct and it's worth persisting in.

8 Conclusions

Not every lentil field is the same, and not every farmer can simply apply a fixed solution to solve the problems of weeds and pests. In some areas, pests and diseases recur frequently; in some areas, the soil conditions are special; and in some areas, farmers themselves have limited resources. So, if we want to promote integrated weed Control and pest Management (IWPM) in different regions, we must first accept the fact that the "one-size-fits-all" approach is mostly ineffective. Many studies have pointed out that the plan needs to be adapted to local conditions. For instance, some plots are suitable for increasing the sowing density, while in some areas, mechanical weeding combined with low-dose pesticides is appropriate. The key lies in the proper combination. For these combinations to truly take root, field trials and farmers' participation are indispensable. Sitting in the laboratory to design a plan is one thing, but whether it can be used in the fields and whether farmers are willing to use it is another. Furthermore, with the intensification of climate change and the mutation of pests, diseases and weeds, the originally effective management measures may also become ineffective at any time, which requires continuous monitoring and adjustment.

From a policy perspective, farmers cannot go far by exploring on their own; the promotion system must keep up. Training, demonstration fields and communication platforms are all starting points for enhancing cognition. If no one teaches or demonstrates, many farmers will not easily try new methods. Of course, training alone is not enough. For policies to truly support, practical measures must be taken, such as providing subsidies to farmers who use biological control methods and offering research and development incentives to enterprises promoting pest and weed resistant varieties. In the past, policies were accustomed to emphasizing the point of "reduced drug dosage". But now, what is more important is to guide farmers to understand the benefits of the "combination strategy" : not by not using drugs, but by relying on drugs alone; It is not about completely discarding tradition, but rather incorporating ecological and biological concepts. At the same time, supporting local research, selecting seeds based on local conditions, and promoting solutions based on actual situations are more useful than simply introducing "advanced technologies".

In the future, if researchers, farmers, governments and enterprises can all stand on the same line and jointly promote effective IWPM strategies, it will be possible for lentil cultivation to truly embark on a sustainable path. Policies should have the courage to encourage new attempts and also have mechanisms to reward those who "do the right thing". From knowledge, technology to the market, every link needs someone to take over in order for things to be possible.

Acknowledgments

I thank the anonymous reviewer for his careful review of the first draft, whose specific feedback helped us improve the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The author affirms that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

Ahmed F., Hasna M., and Emon R., 2021, Ecofriendly disease management of lentil (Lens culinaris) seedlings, Agricultural Sciences, 12(12): 1555-1564.

https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2021.1212099

Alba O., Syrovy L., Duddu H., and Shirtliffe S., 2020, Increased seeding rate and multiple methods of mechanical weed control reduce weed biomass in a poorly competitive organic crop, Field Crops Research, 245: 107648.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2019.107648

Angon P., Mondal S., Jahan I., Datto M., Antu U., Ayshi F., and Islam M., 2023, Integrated pest management (IPM) in agriculture and its role in maintaining ecological balance and biodiversity, Advances in Agriculture, 2023(1): 5546373.

https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/5546373

Baker B., Green T., and Loker A., 2020, Biological control and integrated pest management in organic and conventional systems, Biological Control, 140: 104095.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2019.104095

Bankoti P., and Nautiyal M., 2021, Impact of weed management practices on growth and yield of lentil (Lens culinaris L.), International Journal of Advances in Agricultural Science and Technology, 8(1): 75-80.

https://doi.org/10.47856/IJAAST.2021.V08I1.010

Bidar F., Razmjou J., Golizadeh A., Fathi S., Ebadollahi A., and Naseri B., 2021, Effect of different legume seeds on life table parameters of cowpea weevil, Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), Journal of Stored Products Research, 90: 101755.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2020.101755

Birla D., Pandey I., Gajanand, Singh D., Ranjan P., Solanki K., and Sandeep S., 2023, Effect of tillage and weed management practices on dry matter, yield and nutrient uptake by plant and depletion by weed in lentil crop (Lens culinaris M.), International Journal of Environment and Climate Change, 13(9): 288-298.

https://doi.org/10.9734/ijecc/2023/v13i92231

Chen Q.S., 2024, Genome-wide association studies in fabaceae: progress and prospects, Genomics and Applied Biology, 15(4): 212-222.

https://doi.org/10.5376/gab.2024.15.0023

Das S., Porter L., Coyne C., Chaves-Cordoba B., and Naidu R., 2022, Resistance in lentil (Lens culinaris) genetic resources to the pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum), Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 170(8): 755-769.

https://doi.org/10.1111/eea.13202

Ebadi A., Naseri B., Besheli B., Razmjou J., Ebadollahi A., Pourabad R., Elahi M., and Afshari F., 2025, Resistance of some lentil cultivars against the cowpea beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), Journal of Stored Products Research, 111: 102546.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2025.102546

En-Nahli Y., Hejjaoui K., Mentag R., Es-Safi N., and Amri M., 2023, Large field screening for resistance to broomrape (Orobanche crenata Forsk.) in a global lentil diversity panel (GLDP) (Lens culinaris Medik.), Plants, 12(10): 2064.

https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12102064

Esposito M., Crimaldi M., Cirillo V., Sarghini F., and Maggio A., 2021, Drone and sensor technology for sustainable weed management: a review, Chemical and Biological Technologies in Agriculture, 8(1): 18.

https://doi.org/10.1186/s40538-021-00217-8

Kalita H., and Chakrabarty R., 2019, Soil microbes, nutrient removal, productivity and profitability of lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus) influenced by weed management practices, Journal of Crop and Weed, 15(1): 127-133.

Kaur T., and Bhullar M., 2015, Weed management in lentil (Lens culinaris Medic. L.) in North West India, Pesticide Research Journal, 27(1): 111-114.

Kumar A., Nandan R., Sinha K., and Ghosh D., 2001, Integrated weed management in lentil (Lens culinaris) in calcareous alluvial soils of Bihar, Indian Journal of Agronomy, 61(1): 75-78.

https://doi.org/10.59797/ija.v61i1.4326

Kumari M., Sharma K., Sharma O., Bagri R., and Nathawat B., 2020, Integrated management of vascular wilt of lentil (Lens culinaris M.) incited by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Lentis, Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 9(5): 3308-3310.

https://doi.org/10.22271/phyto.2020.v9.i5at.12857

Kumari R., Prakash S., Vimal H., and Mane A., 2022, Influence of different weed control strategies on growth, yield attributing characters, yield and quality parameters of lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.), International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 12(9): 198-203.

https://doi.org/10.29322/ijsrp.12.09.2022.p12924

Lhungdim J., Singh Y., and Singh R., 2013, Integration of chemical and manual weed management on weed density, yield and production economics of lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus), International Journal of Bio-resource and Stress Management, 4(4): 593-598.

Mbasani-Mansi J., Briache F., Ennami M., Gaboun F., Benbrahim N., Triqui Z., and Mentag R., 2019, Resistance of Moroccan lentil genotypes to Orobanche crenata infestation, Journal of Crop Improvement, 33(3): 306-326.

https://doi.org/10.1080/15427528.2019.1581866

Pala F., 2019, A survey on weed management in dry lentil fields, Applied Ecology & Environmental Research, 17(6): 13513-13521.

https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1706_1351313521

Ram N., 2015, Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for sustainable crop protection in India, International Journal of Innovative Research in Engineering & Multidisciplinary Physical Sciences, 3(6): 232421.

https://doi.org/10.37082/ijirmps.v3.i6.232421

Rao A., and Chauhan B., 2015, Weeds and weed management in India-A review, In: Weed science in the Asian Pacific Region, Indian Society of Weed Science, Hyderabad, pp.87-118.

Rao A., and Nagamani A., 2010, Integrated weed management in India-Revisited, Indian Journal of Weed Science, 42(3&4): 123-135.

Redlick C., Syrovy L., Duddu H., Benaragama D., Johnson E., Willenborg C., and Shirtliffe S., 2017, Developing an integrated weed management system for herbicide-resistant weeds using lentil (Lens culinaris) as a model crop, Weed Science, 65(6): 778-786.

https://doi.org/10.1017/wsc.2017.47

Rhioui W., Al Figuigui J., and Belmalha S., 2024, Assessing the impact of organic and chemical herbicides on agronomic parameters, yield, and weed control efficiency in lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) under a direct-seeding system: a comparative analysis, In: BIO Web of Conferences, EDP Sciences, 109: 01033.

https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/202410901033

Rhioui W., Al Figuigui J., Boutagayout A., Zouhar M., and Belmalha S., 2023, Effects of organic and inorganic mulching, nettle extract, and manual weeding on weed management under direct-seeded lentil in Meknes region, Morocco, Crop Protection, 173: 106376.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2023.106376

Roy A., Sahu P., Das C., Bhattacharyya S., Raina A., and Mondal S., 2023, Conventional and new-breeding technologies for improving disease resistance in lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.), Frontiers in Plant Science, 13: 1001682.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.1001682

Saeidi K., and Mirfakhraie S., 2017, Trials on the timing of chemical control of lentil weevil, Bruchus lentis Frӧlich (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae) in lentil field in Gachsaran region, Iran, Journal of Entomological and Acarological Research, 49(3): 6829.

https://doi.org/10.4081/jear.2017.6829

Sharma S., Singh S., Aggarwal N., Kaur J., Gill R., Kushwah A., Patil S., and Kumar S., 2018, Genetic variation for tolerance to post-emergence herbicide imazethapyr in lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.), Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science, 64(13): 1818-1830.

https://doi.org/10.1080/03650340.2018.1463519

Shivani, Grewal S., Gill R., Virk H., and Bhardwaj R., 2025, Imazethapyr and weed interference-induced oxidative stress change the dynamics of the antioxidant defence system in lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.), Crop Protection, 190: 107068.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2024.107068

Sirisha L., Kumar B., Kumar S., Behera S., and Chattopadhay T., 2020, Effect of pre and post emergence herbicidal application on weed dynamics and yield in lentil (Lens culinaris), International Journal of Chemical Studies, 8(4): 3926-3932.

https://doi.org/10.22271/chemi.2020.v8.i4ax.10260

Tariq M.H., Iqbal A., Maqbool R., Naqi A.H., Khan B.A., Nadeem M.A., Qamar J., Sohail M.K., Irfan M., Ud Din I., Nawaz H., and Khalid B., 2022, Comparative efficacy of different herbicides for weed management in lentil (Lens culinaris L.), Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research, 28(1): 29-44.

https://doi.org/10.28941/pjwsr.v28i1.994

Tosti G., Falcinelli B., and Guiducci M., 2023, Lentil-cereal intercropping in a Mediterranean area: yield, pests and weeds, Agronomy Journal, 115(4): 2570-2578.

https://doi.org/10.1002/agj2.21413

Tripathi A., 2016, Productivity enhancement of lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) through integrated crop management technologies, Legume Research, 39(6): 999-1002.

https://doi.org/10.18805/LR.V0IOF.9436

Yang T., Liu K., Poppy L., Mulenga A., and Gampe C., 2021, Minimizing lentil harvest loss through improved agronomic practices in sustainable agro-systems, Sustainability, 13(4): 1896.

https://doi.org/10.3390/su13041896

Zafeiriou I., Ntoanidou S., Baira E., Kasiotis K., Barmpouni T., Machera K., and Mylona P., 2022, Ingenious characterization and assessment of lentil germplasm collection to aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum stress unveils distinct responses, Frontiers in Plant Science, 13: 1011026.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.1011026

Zhong Y.T., and Zhong S.L., 2024, Development of precision agriculture techniques for soybean yield improvement, Bioscience Evidence, 14(6): 260-269.

https://doi.org/10.5376/be.2024.14.0027

Zhou N., Wist T., and Prager S., 2023, Development of economic thresholds for pea aphid (Hemiptera: Aphididae) management in lentil (Fabaceae) based on in-field insecticide efficacy trials, Journal of Economic Entomology, 116(4): 1233-1242.

https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/toad128