1 Introduction

Rice is a fundamental staple crop, serving as the primary food source for over half of the global population, particularly in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. It plays a crucial role in food security, providing up to 50% of the dietary caloric intake for millions living in poverty (Muthayya et al., 2014). As a staple crop, rice is not only vital for nutrition but also for the economic stability of many countries, contributing significantly to the annual crop value (Verma et al., 2021). Despite its importance, rice production faces numerous challenges that threaten its yield and sustainability.

One of the primary challenges in achieving high rice yield is the limited availability of arable land, which is exacerbated by the growing global population and urbanization (Wing et al., 2018). Climate change further complicates rice cultivation by introducing unpredictable weather patterns, increasing the frequency of extreme weather events, and altering pest and disease dynamics (Cai et al., 2024). Additionally, resource constraints such as water scarcity and the need for sustainable agricultural practices pose significant hurdles (Maraseni et al., 2018). These challenges necessitate innovative solutions, including the development of climate-resilient rice varieties and the adoption of sustainable agronomic practices.

This study explores the balance between genetic progress and agronomic practices in increasing rice yield. By integrating genomics and sustainable agricultural technologies, we gain a deeper understanding of how to coordinate these methods to meet the growing demand for rice while minimizing environmental impact. The content covers analyzing current challenges, potential solutions, and the role of international cooperation and policies in supporting sustainable rice production. This study aims to contribute to the current discussions on global food security and the sustainable development of rice as a key food resource.

2 Genetic Contributions to High Rice Yield

2.1 Identification of key yield-related genes

The genetic architecture of rice yield is complex, involving multiple quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that influence traits such as the number of grains per panicle, grain weight, and tillers per plant (Li et al., 2024). Recent studies have identified numerous genes associated with these yield components, including those involved in the initiation and development of tillers and panicles (Xing and Zhang, 2010). Meta-QTL analyses have further refined the identification of stable genomic regions and candidate genes, such as those encoding cytochrome P450 and zinc finger proteins, which are crucial for grain yield regulation (Aloryi et al., 2022).

2.2 Advances in genetic engineering and genome editing for yield improvement

Advancements in genetic engineering, particularly the use of CRISPR/Cas9, have enabled precise editing of yield-related genes in rice (Wang, 2024). This technology has been used to create mutants with enhanced yield traits by targeting genes like Grain number 1a (Gn1a) and DENSE AND ERECT PANICLE1 (DEP1), resulting in superior yield alleles (Huang et al., 2018). Additionally, CRISPR/Cas9 has been employed to edit genes in the cytochrome P450 family, leading to increased grain size and improved aroma without affecting other agronomic traits (Usman et al., 2020). These innovations highlight the potential of genome editing to significantly boost rice yield.

2.3 Challenges in translating genetic insights into practical applications

Despite the progress in identifying yield-related genes and developing genetic engineering techniques, several challenges remain in translating these insights into practical applications. One major challenge is the complex interaction between genetic and environmental factors that influence yield traits, making it difficult to predict the performance of genetically modified varieties under diverse conditions (Figure 1) (Nutan et al., 2020). Additionally, the polygenic nature of yield traits means that minor-effect loci, which are difficult to identify and manipulate, play a significant role in yield outcomes (Su et al., 2021). Furthermore, ensuring the stable inheritance and expression of edited traits across generations remains a technical hurdle. These challenges necessitate continued research and development to effectively harness genetic insights for rice yield improvement.

3 Agronomic Practices for High Yield

3.1 Optimized nutrient management strategies

Optimized nutrient management is crucial for achieving high rice yields. Studies have shown that a balanced application of organic and inorganic fertilizers can significantly enhance rice productivity. For instance, a combination of 75% nitrogen through urea and 25% through vermicompost, along with micronutrients like ZnSO₄ and FeSO₄, has been found to maximize growth and yield. Additionally, site-specific nitrogen management and the timing of nitrogen application, particularly before panicle primordia formation, are critical for increasing spikelet numbers and overall grain yield (Bhuiyan et al., 2020). Adjusting nitrogen management to reduce late-stage applications can also improve rice quality and nitrogen use efficiency (Cheng et al., 2021).

3.2 Advances in irrigation and water management

Innovative irrigation practices are essential for sustaining high rice yields, especially under changing climate conditions. Techniques such as alternate wetting and drying have been shown to improve water use efficiency and yield in rice-wheat rotation systems (Li et al., 2012). Efficient water management not only supports high yields but also reduces greenhouse gas emissions and enhances biodiversity, contributing to sustainable agricultural practices (Pérez-Méndez et al., 2021). These methods are particularly important in regions facing water scarcity and climate variability, where traditional irrigation methods may not be sustainable.

3.3 Adoption of modern cultivation techniques

The adoption of modern cultivation techniques, including the use of high-yielding cultivars and improved planting methods, plays a significant role in enhancing rice yields. For example, the use of super hybrid rice varieties, combined with optimized management practices, has led to significant yield improvements by enhancing photosynthetic efficiency and delaying leaf senescence (Deng et al., 2022). Additionally, the integration of genetic and agronomic improvements, such as regular cultivar replacement and management adjustments, has been effective in maintaining high production levels in intensive cropping systems (Ladha et al., 2021). These modern techniques are crucial for bridging the yield gap and meeting the growing global demand for rice.

4 Case Study

4.1 Background and agricultural context of the region

The case study focuses on rice cultivation in Central China, a region known for its significant production of japonica rice. This area faces challenges such as balancing high yield with quality and disease resistance, particularly against rice blast disease, which is prevalent due to the humid climate. Additionally, the lower reaches of the Yangtze River in China are highlighted for their wheat-rice rotation systems, which are crucial for maintaining high agricultural productivity in the region.

4.2 Implementation of genetics and agronomy for yield improvement

In central China, a genomic-based strategy was employed to balance multiple agronomic traits, including yield, quality, and disease resistance. This involved re-sequencing 200 japonica rice varieties and identifying superior alleles for these traits, leading to the development of elite lines with improved characteristics (Xiao et al., 2021). In the Yangtze River region, agronomic practices such as site-specific nitrogen management and alternate wetting and drying irrigation were implemented to enhance yield. These practices, combined with genetic improvements, resulted in significant yield increases for both rice and wheat.

4.3 Outcomes and lessons learned

The genomic approach in Central China successfully introduced alleles that improved taste quality and blast resistance while maintaining high yield, resulting in the development of elite rice lines like XY₉₉ and JXY₁ (Figure 2) (Xiao et al., 2021). In the Yangtze River region, the integration of improved agronomic practices led to a 26.8% increase in annual yield compared to traditional methods, demonstrating the effectiveness of combining genetic and agronomic strategies (Li et al., 2012). These case studies underscore the importance of a holistic approach that integrates genetic insights with tailored agronomic practices to achieve sustainable yield improvements in rice cultivation.

5 Integrating Genetics and Agronomy: A Synergistic Approach

5.1 Complementary roles of genetics and agronomy in yield improvement

The integration of genetics and agronomy plays a crucial role in enhancing rice yield. Genetic improvements, such as the development of high-yielding varieties through traditional breeding and modern genetic tools, provide the foundation for increased productivity (Sabar et al., 2024). These genetic advancements are complemented by agronomic practices that optimize environmental conditions and resource use, such as water and nutrient management, to maximize the genetic potential of rice varieties (Deng et al., 2022). The synergy between genetic and agronomic improvements is evident in systems where genotype × management interactions are exploited to enhance yield under varying environmental conditions (Hunt et al., 2021). This complementary relationship ensures that genetic gains are fully realized through tailored agronomic practices, leading to sustainable yield improvements.

5.2 Tools and technologies for integration

The integration of genetics and agronomy is facilitated by various tools and technologies. Genomic tools, such as genome-wide association studies and multiplex genome editing, enable precise genetic modifications to enhance yield-related traits (Liu et al., 2022). These genetic tools are complemented by agronomic technologies, such as high-throughput remote sensing and phenomics, which allow for the monitoring and management of crop responses to environmental stresses (Tripathi et al., 2012). Additionally, functional-structural models like OpenSimRoot help in understanding root phenotypes and their impact on nutrient uptake, further bridging the gap between genetic potential and agronomic performance (Ajmera et al., 2022). These technologies collectively support a more integrated approach to rice yield improvement by aligning genetic traits with optimal agronomic practices.

5.3 Policy frameworks and institutional support for integration

Effective policy frameworks and institutional support are essential for the successful integration of genetics and agronomy in rice production. Policies that promote interdisciplinary research and collaboration among geneticists, agronomists, and other stakeholders can accelerate the development and adoption of integrated approaches (Ladha et al., 2021). Institutional support in the form of funding, infrastructure, and training programs is crucial for advancing research and implementing integrated strategies at the farm level. Additionally, policies that encourage sustainable agricultural practices and the use of advanced technologies can help align genetic and agronomic improvements with broader goals of food security and environmental sustainability (Rasheed et al., 2021). Such frameworks ensure that the benefits of integrated approaches are realized across different scales and contexts.

6 Future Directions in Rice High-Yield Research

6.1 Emerging genetic tools for yield enhancement

Recent advancements in genetic tools, particularly CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing, have shown significant promise in enhancing rice yield. This technology allows for precise modifications of yield-related genes, such as those involved in plant architecture and grain formation, without the unintended mutations associated with traditional mutagenesis methods (Altaf et al., 2021; Thiruppathi et al., 2024). The development of allele-specific SNP/indel markers for yield-enhancing genes further supports the rapid improvement of rice yield potential through marker-assisted breeding (Kim et al., 2016). Additionally, multiplex genome editing systems have been introduced to improve multiple traits simultaneously, offering a rapid and directional approach to enhancing rice yield (Liu et al., 2022).

6.2 Innovative agronomic practices for sustainable intensification

Sustainable intensification of rice production is crucial in the face of climate change and increasing global demand. Innovative agronomic practices, such as the system of rice intensification (SRI), have been proposed to boost yields without relying solely on genetic improvements. These practices emphasize efficient water use and management, which are vital in mitigating the impacts of water scarcity and biotic stress (Pérez-Méndez et al., 2021). Integrating these agronomic strategies with genetic improvements can lead to more resilient rice production systems that maintain high yields under varying environmental conditions (Nutan et al., 2020).

6.3 Enhancing global collaboration and knowledge transfer

Global collaboration and knowledge transfer are essential for accelerating rice yield improvements. Institutions like the international rice research institute (IRRI) play a pivotal role in disseminating high-yielding rice varieties and sharing breeding resources across regions (Juma et al., 2021). Collaborative efforts are needed to bridge the gap between genetic research and practical agronomic applications, ensuring that scientific advancements translate into real-world agricultural improvements (Glover, 2014). By fostering interdisciplinary work and enhancing communication between researchers and farmers, the global rice community can better address the challenges of food security and sustainable agriculture.

7 Concluding Remarks

The research insights into rice high yield emphasize the intricate balance between genetic and agronomic factors to achieve optimal rice production. Key findings highlight the importance of genomic strategies in balancing high yield, quality, and disease resistance, as demonstrated by the development of elite rice lines with superior traits. The study also underscores the complexity of rice yield, which is influenced by multiple genetic loci and their interactions, suggesting that focusing on component traits can enhance yield potential. Additionally, the integration of agronomic practices, such as site-specific nitrogen management and irrigation techniques, has been shown to significantly boost yield in rice-wheat rotation systems.

Balancing genetics and agronomy is crucial for sustainable yield improvement in rice. Genetic advancements, such as the identification of elite genes and quantitative trait loci (QTLs), provide the foundation for breeding programs aimed at enhancing yield and quality. However, these genetic improvements must be complemented by agronomic interventions to address environmental challenges and optimize resource use. For instance, the adoption of improved cultivation practices has been shown to sustain high yields even under stress conditions, highlighting the need for a holistic approach that combines genetic and agronomic strategies.

To achieve global rice yield targets, a multifaceted approach is necessary. Future efforts should focus on integrating advanced genomic tools with precision agronomy to develop rice varieties that are resilient to climate change and capable of meeting the growing food demand. Continued research into the genetic basis of yield-related traits and their interaction with environmental factors will be essential for guiding breeding programs. Moreover, fostering collaboration between geneticists, agronomists, and policymakers will be key to implementing sustainable practices that ensure food security and environmental sustainability.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the entire research team for the helpful discussion and invaluable comments to make this research meaningful.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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