Climate change is an escalating global phenomenon that poses significant challenges to various sectors, with agriculture being particularly vulnerable. The global trends of climate change are characterized by rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. These changes have profound implications for agricultural production, as they affect crop growth, yields, and the distribution of pests and diseases. Studies have shown that climate change is projected to impact food production stability in many tropical countries, with significant alterations in the climatic suitability for major food crops (Chemura et al., 2020).

Cassava is a staple food crop for millions of people in the tropics and is renowned for its resilience to harsh environmental conditions. It plays a pivotal role in global food security, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Despite its hardiness, cassava is not impervious to the stresses imposed by climate change, and its production is susceptible to the changing climate (Enete et al., 2013).

Cassava cultivation faces specific challenges due to climate change, including alterations in the length of the growing season, increased incidence of water stress, and the potential for reduced tuber quality and post-harvest losses. Climate variability and change have been shown to affect cassava yields, with temperature fluctuations and altered rainfall patterns posing significant risks to production. Additionally, the post-harvest processing of cassava is also impacted, with changes in climate affecting the drying and fermentation processes, which are crucial for the conversion of cassava into edible and marketable products (Enete et al., 2013).

To combat the adverse effects of climate change on cassava cultivation, genetic adaptation and breeding strategies are essential. Breeding new varieties of cassava that are tolerant to extreme climatic conditions, such as excessive rainfall, heat, and flood, is a critical step towards ensuring sustainable production. Furthermore, the development of cassava varieties with improved resistance to pests and diseases, which are likely to proliferate under changing climate conditions, is also a priority (Chapman et al., 2012). The implementation of these strategies can enhance the resilience of cassava to climate change, thereby contributing to food security and the livelihoods of farming communities (Owoeye, 2020).

This study aims to explore in depth the impact of climate change on cassava cultivation, as well as the importance of genetic adaptation and breeding strategies in addressing climate change. Through this study, scientific basis and technical support can be provided for cassava cultivation, contributing to ensuring global food security. At the same time, it can also provide reference and inspiration for the cultivation of other crops, and provide new ideas and methods for addressing climate change.

1 The Relationship between Cassava Cultivation and Climate Change

1.1 Climate conditions for cassava growth

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a root crop that thrives in a variety of climatic conditions, making it a staple food for millions of people worldwide. Optimal growth of cassava is achieved in tropical environments where temperatures range between 25 °C and 29 °C. It can tolerate a temperature level of up to 40 °C, beyond which the rate of photosynthesis may decrease (Pushpalatha and Gangadharan, 2020). Cassava is also adaptable to different levels of solar radiation and can be cultivated in regions with variations in sunshine duration without significant yield compromise.

Rainfall is another critical factor for cassava cultivation. While cassava can withstand periods of water stress by reducing stomatal conductance and through leaf drooping, it generally requires a well-distributed annual rainfall of 1000-1500 mm. However, cassava has shown resilience to water scarcity and can be grown in areas with lower rainfall. Additionally, cassava can tolerate air humidity variations and has some level of salinity tolerance, with established plants able to withstand up to 150 mM of salinity (Pushpalatha and Gangadharan, 2020).

1.2 Specific impacts of climate change on cassava growth

Cassava has demonstrated a strong positive response to elevated CO₂ levels, with studies showing increased photosynthetic rates and yield stimulation under higher atmospheric CO₂ concentrations (Rosenthal et al., 2012). However, high temperatures can negatively impact cassava productivity, as indicated by a robust model of yield response to climate change for several key African crops, including cassava (Schlenker and Lobell, 2010). The yield of cassava is projected to decrease with rising temperatures, which could lead to significant losses in productivity.

The changes in rainfall patterns caused by climate change will affect cassava production. For example, the positive and negative effects of precipitation on cassava production vary at different times. In Nigeria, the increase in rainfall is related to a positive coefficient in the short term, but has a negative impact on cassava production in the long term (Mbanasor, 2015). In addition, climate predictions indicate that due to changes in rainfall and evapotranspiration, cassava yield may decrease, leading to the development of water stress during crop growth (Pipitpukdee et al., 2022).

Extreme weather events, such as droughts and floods, pose a significant threat to cassava cultivation. Cassava's ability to adapt to drought conditions is significant, but long-term water stress can still lead to reduced water yields. For example, Pipitpukdee et al. (2020) found that cassava yield has an inverted U-shaped relationship with temperature, and the harvest yield due to climate change is expected to decrease by 2.57%~6.22% (Figure 1). In addition, the geographical distribution of pests and diseases affecting cassava is expected to change, and new areas will become vulnerable to pests and diseases such as cassava mosaic, whitefly, brown streak, and cassava mealybug (Jarvis et al., 2012). These biotic stresses, combined with abiotic factors such as extreme temperature fluctuations and increased salinity due to sea level rise, may challenge cassava adaptation (Pushpalatha and Gangadharan, 2020).

Figure 1 Projected percent changes in cassava production under climate change scenarios (Pipitpukdee et al., 2020) Note: (a) baseline production (MT), (b) percent of change in production under RCP 4.5 and (c) percent of change in production under RCP 8.5

2 Genetic Adaptation Mechanism of Cassava

2.1 Genetic diversity of cassava and its potential for combating adversity

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is an important tropical crop with extensive genetic diversity. This genetic diversity is not only reflected in the genetic differences between its wild ancestor species and cultivated species, but also in the genetic variations within cultivated species. This genetic diversity provides cassava with the potential to resist adversity. By screening and utilizing these genetic resources, scientists can cultivate cassava varieties with excellent traits, such as high yield, disease resistance, insect resistance, drought resistance, etc.The identification of drought-tolerant and -resistant varieties, as demonstrated in the study conducted in the Sudan Savanna Zone of Nigeria, highlights the genetic variability in cassava's response to drought conditions. The study found that genotypic differences significantly influenced traits such as fresh root yield, fresh shoot yield, and root dry-matter content, suggesting a strong genetic basis for phenotypic differences among varieties (Okogbenin et al., 2003).

The genetic diversity of cassava is also reflected in the complexity of its genome. The genome of cassava is large and contains a large number of genes and regulatory elements, which play important roles in the growth, development, and stress response of cassava. Zou et al. (2017) identified 260 candidate QTL genes for cold stress and 301 candidate QTL genes for cassava storage root quality and yield, which may explain the significant variations in these traits.

Cassava, as a tropical crop, has a wide range of adaptability and can grow under different climate and soil conditions. Meanwhile, cassava also has a certain degree of stress resistance and can survive and grow under adverse conditions such as drought, salinity, and heavy metal pollution. The development of density oligomicroarrays by Fu et al. (2016) has made it possible to analyze the transcriptome of different genotypes of cassava under drought stress. The tool has identified approximately 1 300 upregulated genes under drought stress, indicating that cassava has similar drought stress response and tolerance mechanisms to other plants. These ecological adaptations and stress resistance also provide cassava with the potential to resist stress.

2.2 Genetic response of cassava to climate change

The genetic response of cassava to climate change can be observed through changes in physiological indicators, adaptation of metabolic pathways, and genomic level responses. Under drought conditions, cassava may accumulate some low molecular weight organic solutes (such as proline, betaine, etc.) to reduce cell osmotic potential, thereby maintaining water and maintaining cell turgor pressure. Climate change may lead to changes in gene expression in cassava, including transcriptional regulation (such as promoter activity, transcription factor expression, etc.) and post transcriptional regulation (such as mRNA stability, translation efficiency, etc.), which may affect the growth, development, and stress resistance of cassava.

Physiological and transcriptome analyses under dehydration stress induced by polyethylene glycol (PEG) treatments have shown that cassava roots respond quicker to drought, with significant induction of genes related to glycolysis, abiotic stress, and biosynthesis of abscisic acid and ethylene (Fu et al., 2016). Furthermore, the plant's ability to acclimate to chilling stress by altering regulatory networks and inducing genes with protective functions indicates a genetic mechanism for improved stress tolerance (Zeng et al., 2014). The genomic analyses of a wild ancestor and a domesticated variety of cassava have revealed positive selection for genes involved in photosynthesis and starch accumulation (Figure 2), as well as negative selection for genes involved in cell wall biosynthesis and secondary metabolism, including cyanogenic glucoside formation (Wang et al., 2014). These findings suggest that cassava has genetically adapted to optimize energy production and reduce potentially harmful compounds in response to environmental pressures.

Figure 2 High efficiency starch accumulation model for cassava (Wang et al., 2014) Note: The red arrow indicates the direction and intensity of carbon flux in cultivated varieties, indicating the biological processes in which carbon flux increases in cultivated varieties, such as starch synthesis; Blue arrow: indicates the carbon flux in wild varieties, which is usually weak and reflects the natural state of biological pathways in the wild environment

2.3 Genetic connections between wild and cultivated cassava ancestor species

The genetic resources of wild cassava ancestral species provide valuable insights into the domestication and adaptation processes of crops. Wild ancestral species may have some unique genetic characteristics, such as stress resistance, adaptability, etc., which are of great significance for the cultivation and improvement of cassava. The genetic exchange between cultivated and wild ancestral species is an important source of genetic diversity and adaptive evolution in cassava. Through breeding methods such as hybridization and backcrossing, scientists can introduce the excellent characteristics of wild ancestral species into cultivated varieties, thereby improving the yield, quality, and stress resistance of cassava.

Comparative genomic studies have identified gene models unique to wild and domesticated varieties, with millions of single nucleotide variations and high levels of heterozygosity. Wang et al. (2014) provided detailed information on single nucleotide variations (SNVs) and insertions/deletions (InDels) of cassava varieties W14, KU50, and CAS36 compared to the reference genome AM560 (Figure 3). These genetic differences are formed by natural selection and domestication, affecting traits such as starch accumulation and stress response. The genetic exchange between cultivated and wild ancestor species is evident in the unique gene model and selected genes in domesticated varieties. The study of cassava genome from wild ancestors to cultivated varieties helps to understand the genetic improvement of cassava through domestication (Wang et al., 2014). By conducting in-depth research on this genetic connection, we can better understand the genetic characteristics of cassava and provide scientific basis for cassava breeding and improvement.

Figure 3 Comparative genomic analysis of different cassava varieties (Wang et al., 2014) Note: a: Venn diagram showing the diversity of SNVs/InDels in the studied cassava genome; b: Chromosome in situ hybridization data, indicating the number and structure of chromosomes in KU50 varieties; c: The CirCOS plot shows the collinearity between the cassava genome region and the assumed homologous regions of the Ricinus communis and Arabidopsis thaliana genomes; d: The gene tree depicts the evolutionary differentiation of cassava from its wild ancestors to cultivated varieties, referencing comparisons with other species in the tung family based on chloroplast gene sequences

3 Breeding Strategies to Address Climate Change

Selecting cassava varieties with strong stress resistance is one of the important breeding strategies to address climate change. By using traditional breeding methods, biotechnology methods, and molecular marker assisted selection, new cassava varieties with stronger stress resistance can be cultivated, contributing to ensuring global food security and energy supply.

3.1 Breeding cassava varieties with strong stress resistance

The threat of climate change is increasing, especially drought and high temperatures, which can seriously affect crop yield, highlighting the importance of cassava resistance breeding. Improving non biological and biological stress resistance levels in breeding is a key response to these challenges (Snowdon et al., 2020; Cooper and Messina, 2022). The methods and strategies of resistance breeding include applying the "breeder equation" to predict selection responses during the breeding cycle, as well as integrating cross scale trait information from the genome to the ecosystem (Cooper and Messina, 2022). This method has been successfully applied to breeding crops such as temperate corn, and similar methods are also applicable to cassava.

Breeding cassava varieties with strong stress resistance is one of the important goals of modern agricultural breeding, and 'Guiken 09-26' is an outstanding case in this field. This variety was obtained through hybrid breeding technology in 2008, using 'South China 5' as the female parent and 'South China 205' as the male parent, aiming to cultivate a new variety with high yield, high starch content, and excellent stress resistance. During the breeding process, breeding experts conducted meticulous observation and testing of hybrid offspring through multi generation systematic breeding and strict screening evaluation 'Guiken 09-26' showed strong resistance under adverse conditions such as drought and pests, significantly reducing planting risks (Liu et al., 2016).

3.2 Use of biotechnology to improve cassava

Gene editing technologies, especially the CRISPR-Cas9 system, have revolutionized cassava breeding. By precisely editing the genome of cassava, it is possible to directionally alter the function of its specific genes, resulting in the development of cassava varieties with superior traits. For example, the application of gene editing techniques in cassava breeding offers the potential to precisely modify the genetic factors responsible for stress tolerance. This can lead to the development of cassava varieties that enhance their resistance to drought and high temperature stress (Snowdon et al., 2020).

Genetically modified technology imparts new traits to cassava by introducing foreign genes into the cassava genome, allowing them to be expressed and produce corresponding proteins or enzymes. The potential of transgenic technology in improving cassava stress resistance is enormous, as it can introduce new traits that confer resilience to climate-induced stresses (Brown et al., 2020).

Molecular marker-assisted selection (MAS) technology is a molecular biology-based breeding method that utilizes molecular markers, such as DNA fragments, to track and select target genes or traits. Molecular marker-assisted selection techniques can speed up the breeding process by improving breeding efficiency by identifying and selecting desirable traits at the genetic level (Atlin et al., 2017).

3.3 Diversified planting strategies

Mixed cropping refers to planting cassava on the same plot of land as other crops such as beans, corn, etc. This planting pattern can improve the utilization of land resources through complementary effects. Crop rotation refers to the cultivation of different crops in different years or seasons. This planting pattern helps to improve soil structure, increase soil fertility and reduce the occurrence of pests and diseases. Diverse cropping strategies, such as mixed cropping and crop rotation patterns, can have a positive impact on cassava growth by enhancing soil health and reducing pest and disease stress (Smith, 2020).

Crop diversity refers to the cultivation of a variety of crops in farmland, which can enhance the stability of farmland ecosystems and improve the stress resistance of crops. In arid or saline areas, planting some drought-tolerant and salinity-tolerant crops can reduce the stress on cassava. The contribution of crop diversity to resistance to stress is reflected in the ability of different cropping systems to buffer environmental stresses, thereby improving overall resilience (Olaosebikan et al., 2023).

In cassava planting, a reasonable layout can make full use of land resources, improve light and ventilation conditions, and promote the growth and yield of cassava. The appropriate planting density should also be determined according to the comprehensive consideration of cassava varieties, soil conditions, climatic conditions and other factors. Optimizing planting density and layout can further promote cassava growth by ensuring that plants have enough resources and space to thrive even under stressful conditions (Olaosebikan et al., 2023). These strategies are essential to adapt cassava cultivation to a changing climate and ensure sustainable production.

4 Sustainable Development of Cassava Cultivation under Climate Change

4.1 Application of climate-smart agriculture in cassava cultivation

Precision agriculture technology is an agricultural production method based on modern information technology, which realizes the precise control and management of the crop growth environment through real-time acquisition and analysis of farmland information. Precision agriculture technology can optimize cassava cultivation by ensuring efficient use of resources and adaptation to changing climatic conditions. For example, the development of agricultural zoning tools can help expand cassava cultivation by identifying suitable areas for cassava growth under various climate change scenarios (Aparecido et al., 2020).

Climate-smart agriculture is a new agricultural production model that combines climate science, agricultural technology and economic management. It aims to achieve sustainable agriculture by improving the adaptability of agricultural production, reducing climate risks, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. As observed in Oyo State, Nigeria, climate-smart agriculture practices have been recognized as increasing yields and increasing sustainable food production (Victory et al., 2022).

4.2 Policy support and farmer participation

In order to increase farmers' acceptance and participation in climate adaptation technologies, governments and all sectors of society need to work together to strengthen education and education, provide technical support, and optimize the policy environment. The government provides financial subsidies and incentives to incentivize farmers to adopt climate adaptation technologies, such as water-efficient irrigation and smart fertilization, to reduce the economic pressure on farmers and increase their motivation. The government has increased investment in the research and development of cassava cultivation technology, promoted advanced climate adaptation technologies and varieties, and cooperated with scientific research institutions and universities to promote continuous innovation and progress in technology. In addition, the government has set strict market access standards and regulatory measures to ensure the quality and safety of cassava products, and actively explore the international market to provide broad sales channels for cassava products. When considering crops such as cassava for food and energy production, supportive government policies can help balance food security and fuel production (Nuwamanya et al., 2012).

The adoption and promotion of resilient crops such as cassava to mitigate climate risks requires not only policy support, but also the active participation of farmers, who themselves need to continuously improve their scientific and technological quality and application capabilities to actively adapt to the challenges brought about by climate change. Studies have shown that farmers' socioeconomic status, such as education and agricultural experience, has a significant impact on their adoption of climate-smart agriculture practices (Victory et al., 2022). In addition, cost-benefit analyses of climate change adaptation strategies can guide farmers in southern Nigeria, showing that practices such as conservation agriculture can be cost-effective and efficient (Ukoha, 2020).

4.3 International cooperation and exchange

In the sustainable development of cassava cultivation, international cooperation and exchange play a pivotal role. This cooperation and exchange not only promotes the sharing of cassava breeding resources in the world, but also injects new vitality into the genetic adaptation and breeding research of cassava. Through international cooperation, countries can share high-quality cassava germplasm resources, including adaptable varieties under different climatic conditions, varieties with strong disease resistance, etc., and can develop improved varieties that are more suitable for different environmental conditions. The Global Cassava Partnership for the 21st Century (GCP21) exemplifies this collaboration, bringing together scientists and professionals to focus on cassava research and development, with a particular emphasis on climate change (Hyman et al., 2012).

International cooperation projects are usually jointly participated by scientific research institutions, universities and enterprises in many countries to promote the innovation and development of cassava genetic adaptation and breeding technology through joint research, technical exchanges and personnel training. The success of the cassava breeding programme of the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) also highlights the importance of international cooperation in significantly increasing cassava productivity (Kawano, 2003).

5 Outlook

With the intensification of global climate change, cassava cultivation is facing more and more challenges. Factors such as temperature fluctuations, changes in rainfall patterns, and increased pests and diseases all directly or indirectly affect cassava growth and yield. For example, in Ghana, the climate suitability of cassava is expected to change, and depending on future climate projects, the optimal suitability area will decrease (Chemura et al., 2020). However, cassava has shown that future CO₂ levels stimulate yields more than expected, which may offset some of the negative effects (Rosenthal et al., 2012). Farmers have been adapting to these changes through various practices, such as planting improved cassava varieties, diversifying livelihoods, and adjusting harvest times (Osuji et al., 2023).

Genetic adaptation and breeding strategies have great potential and prospects in cassava cultivation. Through the use of modern biotechnology, cassava varieties can be bred that are more resilient to climate change, with higher yields and better quality. In response to climate change, improved cassava varieties are recommended to be bred that can tolerate extreme fluctuations in rainfall, high temperatures and floods (Enete et al., 2013). The importance of breeding for pest and disease resistance or tolerance is emphasized, as these biological stresses may change in distribution due to climate change (Chapman et al., 2012). Cassava has been identified as a crop that is highly resilient to future climate change, and it is essential to nurture abiotic traits such as drought and cold tolerance (Jarvis et al., 2012). Gender-specific trait preferences, such as drought tolerance and early swelling, have been identified among farmers, which should inform breeding programs to enhance resilience and social inclusion (Olaosebikan et al., 2023).

Future research should focus on the chemical properties of the new adaptation practices observed in cassava processing and the genetic signatures and phenotypes of complex adaptive traits under climate change conditions (Chapman et al., 2012). Studying the potential incidence and intensity of biostresses and opportunities for breeding solutions is critical to prioritizing investment. In addition, strengthening the adaptation options available to farmers, including improving cassava production, processing, marketing, and value chain infrastructure, is essential for sustainable adaptation (Mbwambo and Liwenga, 2020). The social dimensions of climate change, such as the differential impacts on men and women, and how breeding programs can be more socially inclusive and anticipatory of future challenges should also be considered (Olaosebikan et al., 2023).

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our gratitude to Dr. Fang X.J, the director of the Hainan Institute of Tropical Agricultural Resources, for reading the initial draft of this paper and providing valuable feedback. We also thank the two anonymous peer reviewers for their critical assessment and constructive suggestions on our manuscript.

Funding

This project was funded by the Hainan Institute of Tropical Agricultural Resources under the research contract for the project "Screening and Breeding of Cassava Resources" (Project Number H20230201).

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

Aparecido L., Moraes J., Meneses K., Lorençone P., Lorençone J., Souza G., and Torsoni G., 2020, Agricultural zoning as tool for expansion of cassava in climate change scenarios, Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 142: 1085-1095.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-020-03367-1

Atlin G., Cairns J., and Das B., 2017, Rapid breeding and varietal replacement are critical to adaptation of cropping systems in the developing world to climate change, Global Food Security, 12: 31-37.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.01.008

Brown A., Carpentier S.C., and Swennen R., 2020, Breeding Climate-Resilient Bananas. In: Kole, C. (eds) Genomic Designing of Climate-Smart Fruit Crops. Springer, Cham, Swiss Confederation, Switzerland, pp.91-115.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97946-5_4

Chapman S., Chakraborty S., Dreccer M., Dreccer M., and Howden M., 2012, Plant adaptation to climate change—opportunities and priorities in breeding, Crop and Pasture Science, 63: 251-268.

https://doi.org/10.1071/CP11303

Chemura A., Schauberger B., and Gornott C., 2020, Impacts of climate change on agro-climatic suitability of major food crops in Ghana, PLoS ONE, 115(6): e0229881.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229881

Cooper M., and Messina C., 2022, Breeding crops for drought-affected environments and improved climate resilience, The Plant Cell, 35: 162-186.

https://doi.org/10.1093/plcell/koac321

Enete A., Amusa T., and Nwobodo C., 2013, Climate change and cassava processing in southeast Nigeria, Tropicultura, 31: 272-282.

Fu L., Ding Z., Han B., Hu W., Li Y., and Zhang J., 2016, Physiological investigation and transcriptome analysis of polyethylene glycol (PEG)-induced dehydration stress in cassava, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 17(3): 283.

https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17030283

Hyman G., Bellotti A., Lopez-Lavalle L., Palmer N., and Creamer B., 2012, Cassava and overcoming the challenges of global climatic change: report of the second scientific conference of the Global Cassava Partnership for the 21st century, Food Security, 4: 671-674.

ttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-012-0209-9

Jarvis A., Ramirez-Villegas J., Campo B., and Navarro-Racines C., 2012, Is cassava the answer to african climate change adaptation?. Tropical Plant Biology, 5: 9-29.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12042-012-9096-7

Kawano K., 2003, Thirty years of cassava breeding for productivity—biological and social factors for success. Crop Science, 43: 1325-1335.

https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2003.1325

Liu L.J., Li H.R., Li P., Nong Q.L., and Yang H.X., The breeding and cultivation techniques of new cassava variety ‘Guiken 09-26', Zuowu Yanjiu (Crop Research), 30(4): 429-433.

Mbanasor J., 2015, Impact of climate change on the productivity of cassava in nigeria, agricultural and food sciences, Environmental Science, 4(1): 18.

https://doi.org/10.15640/jaes.v4n1a18

Mbwambo N., and Liwenga E., 2020, Cassava as an adaptation crop to climate variability and change in coastal areas of Tanzania: a case of the Mkuranga district, In: Pius Z.Y., Claude G.M., and Edmund B.M. (eds.),  CIAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 23-33.

https://doi.org/10.1079/9781789242966.0023

Nuwamanya E., Chiwona-Karltun L., Kawuki R., and Baguma Y., 2012, Bio-ethanol production from non-food parts of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), AMBIO, 41: 262-270.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-011-0183-z

Pipitpukdee S., Attavanich W., and Bejranonda S., 2020, Impact of climate change on land use, yield and production of cassava in thailand, Agriculture, 10(9): 402.

https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10090402

Pushpalatha R., and Gangadharan B., 2020, Is Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) a climate “smart” crop? a review in the context of bridging future food demand gap, Tropical Plant Biology, 13: 201-211.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12042-020-09255-2

Okogbenin E., Ekanayake I., ang Porto M., 2003, Genotypic variability in adaptation responses of selected clones of cassava to drought stress in the sudan savanna zone of nigeria, Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 189: 376-389.

https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-037X.2003.00050.x

Olaosebikan O., Bello A., Utoblo O., Okoye B., Olutegbe N., Garner E., Teeken B., Bryan E., Forsythe L., Cole S., Kulakow P., Egesi C., Tufan H., and Madu T., 2023, Stressors and resilience within the cassava value chain in nigeria: preferred cassava variety traits and response strategies of men and women to inform breeding. Sustainability, 15(10): 7837.

https://doi.org/10.3390/su15107837

Osuji E., Igberi C., and Ehirim N., 2023, Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies of cassava farmers in ebonyi state, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Extension. 27(1): 35-48.

https://doi.org/10.4314/jae.v27i1.4

Owoeye R., 2020, Comparing climate adaptation strategies on technical efficiency of cassava production in Southwest, Nigeria, 6: 62-75.

https://doi.org/10.51599/ARE.2020.06.01.05.

Rosenthal D., Slattery R., Miller R., Grennan A., Cavagnaro T., Fauquet C., Gleadow R., and Ort D., 2012, Cassava about‐FACE: Greater than expected yield stimulation of cassava (Manihot esculenta) by future CO2 levels, Global Change Biology, 18(8): 2661-2675.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02726.x

Schlenker W., and Lobell D., 2010, Robust negative impacts of climate change on African agriculture, Environmental Research Letters, 5: 014010.

https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/5/1/014010

Smith C., 2020, Conventional breeding of insect-resistant crop plants: still the best way to feed the world population, Current Opinion in Insect Science, 45: 1-11.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cois.2020.11.008

Snowdon R., Wittkop B., Chen T., and Stahl A., 2020, Crop adaptation to climate change as a consequence of long-term breeding. TAG, Theoretical and Applied Genetics, Theoretische Und Angewandte Genetik, 134: 1613-1623.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00122-020-03729-3

Ukoha A., 2020, Assessment of the Cost-Benefits of Climate Change Adaptation Strategies of Cassava-Based Farmers in Southern Nigeria, Original Research Article, 10(10): 99-110.

https://doi.org/10.9734/IJECC/2020/V10I1030253

Victory G., Lizzie O., and Olaitan A., 2022, Climate-smart agricultural practices at oyo state-nigeria, South Asian Journal of Social Review, 1(1): 1-7.

https://doi.org/10.57044/SAJSR.2022.1.1.2201

Wang W., Feng B., Xiao J., Xia Z., Zhou X., Li P., Zhang W., Wang Y., Møller B., Zhang P., Luo M., Xiao G., Liu J., Yang J., Chen S., Rabinowicz P., Chen X., Zhang H., Ceballos H., Lou Q., Zou M., Carvalho L., Zeng C., Xia J., Sun S., Fu Y., Wang H., Lu C., Ruan M., Zhou S., Wu Z., Liu H., Kannangara R., Jørgensen K., Neale R., Bonde M., Heinz N., Zhu W., Wang S., Zhang Y., Pan K., Wen M., Ma P., Li Z., Hu M., Liao W., Hu W., Zhang S., Pei J., Guo A., Guo J., Zhang J., Zhang Z., Ye J., Ou W., Ma Y., Liu X., Tallon L., Galens K., Ott S., Huang J., Xue J., An F., Yao Q., Lu X., Fregene M., Lopez-Lavalle L., Wu J., You F., Chen M., Hu S., Wu G., Zhong S., Ling P., Chen Y., Wang Q., Liu G., Liu B., Li K., and Peng M., 2014, Cassava genome from a wild ancestor to cultivated varieties, Nature Communications, 5: 5110.

https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms6110

Zeng C., Chen Z., Xia J., Zhang K., Chen X., Zhou Y., Bo W., Song S., Deng D., Guo X., Wang B., Zhou J., Peng H., Wang W., Peng, M., and Zhang W., 2014, Chilling acclimation provides immunity to stress by altering regulatory networks and inducing genes with protective functions in Cassava, BMC Plant Biology, 14: 207-207.

https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-014-0207-5

Zou M., Lu C., Zhang S., Chen Q., Sun X., Ma P., Hu M., Peng M., Ma Z., Chen X., Zhou X., Wang H., Feng S., Fang K., Xie H., Li Z., Liu K., Qin Q., Pei J., Wang S., Pan K., Hu W., Feng B., Fan D., Zhou B., Wu C., Su M., Xia Z., Li K., and Wang W., 2017, Epigenetic map and genetic map basis of complex traits in cassava population, Scientific Reports, 7.41232.

https://doi.org/10.1038/srep41232